Physical characteristics of newborns
Physical characteristics of newborns
Newborn's shoulders and hips are wide, the abdomen
protrudes slightly, and the arms and legs are relatively long with respect to
the rest of their body.In first world nations, the average total body length of a
newborn is 35.6–50.8 cm (14.0–20.0 in), although premature newborns
may be much smaller.The way to measure a baby's length is to lay the baby
down and stretch a measuring tape from the top of the head to the bottom of the
heel.
Weight
In developed
countries, the average birth weight of a full-term newborn is approximately 3.4 kg
(7 1⁄2 lb), and is typically
in the range of 2.7–4.6 kg (6.0–10.1 lb).
Over the first
5–7 days following birth, the body weight of a term neonate decreases by 3–7%,and is largely a result of the resorption and
urination of the fluid that initially fills the lungs, in addition to a delay
of often a few days before breastfeeding becomes effective. After the first week, healthy
term neonates should gain 10–20 grams/day.
Head
A newborn's head is very large in proportion to the body, and the cranium is enormous relative to his or her face. While the adult human skull is about one seventh of the total body length, the newborn's is about ¼. Normal head circumference for a full-term infant is 33–36 cm at birth. At birth, many regions of the newborn's skull have not yet been converted to bone, leaving "soft spots" known as fontanels.
A newborn's head is very large in proportion to the body, and the cranium is enormous relative to his or her face. While the adult human skull is about one seventh of the total body length, the newborn's is about ¼. Normal head circumference for a full-term infant is 33–36 cm at birth. At birth, many regions of the newborn's skull have not yet been converted to bone, leaving "soft spots" known as fontanels.
The two largest are the diamond-shaped anterior fontanel, located at the top front portion of the head, and the smaller triangular-shaped posterior fontanel, which lies at the back of the head. Later in the child's life, these bones will fuse together in a natural process. A protein called noggin is responsible for the delay in an infant's skull fusion.
Hair
Some newborns
have a fine, downy body hair called lanugo. It may be particularly noticeable on the back,
shoulders, forehead, ears and face of premature infants. Lanugo disappears
within a few weeks. Infants may be born with full heads of hair; others,
particularly caucasian infants, may have very fine hair or may even be
bald.
Amongst fair-skinned parents, this fine hair may be blonde, even if the parents are not. Infants hair color and texture change. Red can give way to blond. Curly can go straight and baby's thick, dark hair could make its reappearance a lot sparser and lighter. The scalp may also be temporarily bruised or swollen, especially in hairless newborns, and the area around the eyes may be puffy.
Amongst fair-skinned parents, this fine hair may be blonde, even if the parents are not. Infants hair color and texture change. Red can give way to blond. Curly can go straight and baby's thick, dark hair could make its reappearance a lot sparser and lighter. The scalp may also be temporarily bruised or swollen, especially in hairless newborns, and the area around the eyes may be puffy.
Immediately
after birth, a newborn's skin is often grayish to dusky blue in color. As soon
as the newborn begins to breathe, usually within a minute or two, the skin's
color reaches its normal tone. Newborns are wet, covered in streaks of blood,
and coated with a white substance known as vernix caseosa, which is hypothesised to act as an antibacterial barrier. The newborn may also have Mongolian spots, various other birthmarks, or peeling skin, particularly on the wrists, hands,
ankles, and feet.
Umbilical cord
The umbilical cord of a newborn is bluish-white in color. After birth,
the umbilical cord is normally cut, leaving a 1–2 inch stub. The umbilical
stub will dry out, shrivel, darken, and spontaneously fall off within about 3
weeks.
This will later become a belly-button after it heals. Occasionally, hospitals may apply triple dye to the umbilical stub to prevent infection, which may temporarily color the stub and surrounding skin purple.The umbilical cord contains three vessels: two arteries and one vein. The two arteries carry blood from the baby to the placenta while one vein carries blood back to the baby.
This will later become a belly-button after it heals. Occasionally, hospitals may apply triple dye to the umbilical stub to prevent infection, which may temporarily color the stub and surrounding skin purple.The umbilical cord contains three vessels: two arteries and one vein. The two arteries carry blood from the baby to the placenta while one vein carries blood back to the baby.
Care and feeding
Infants cry as a form of basic instinctive
communication. A crying infant may be
trying to express a variety of feelings including hunger, discomfort,
over stimulation, boredom, wanting something, or loneliness.
Breastfeeding is the recommended method of feeding by all major
infant health organizations. If breastfeeding is not
possible or desired, bottle feeding is done with expressed breast-milk or
with infant formula.
Infants are born with a sucking reflex allowing them to extract the milk from the nipples of the breasts or the nipple of the baby bottle, as well as an instinctive behavior known as rooting with which they seek out the nipple. Sometimes a wet nurse is hired to feed the infant, although this is rare, especially in developed countries.
Infants are born with a sucking reflex allowing them to extract the milk from the nipples of the breasts or the nipple of the baby bottle, as well as an instinctive behavior known as rooting with which they seek out the nipple. Sometimes a wet nurse is hired to feed the infant, although this is rare, especially in developed countries.
Adequate food consumption at an early age is
vital for an infant's development. The foundations of optimum health, growth,
and neuro development across the lifespan are established in the first 1000 days of life.[8] From birth to four months,
infants should consume breast milk or an unmodified milk substitute. As an
infant's diet matures, finger foods may be introduced as well as fruit,
vegetables and small amounts of meat.
As infants grow, food supplements are added.
Many parents choose commercial, ready-made baby foods to supplement breast milk or
formula for the child, while others adapt their usual meals for the dietary
needs of their child. Whole cow's milk can be used at one year, but lower-fat milk is not
recommended until the child is 2 to 3 years old.
Weaning is the process through which breast milk is eliminated from the infant's diet through the introduction of solid foods in exchange for milk. Until they are toilet-trained, infants in industrialized countries wear diapers. The transition from diapers to training pants is an important transition in the development of an infant/baby to that of a toddler.
Children need more sleep than adults—up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as the child ages. Until babies learn to walk, they are carried in the arms, held in slings or baby carriers, or transported in baby carriages or strollers. Most industrialized countries have laws requiring child safety seats for babies in motor vehicles.
Weaning is the process through which breast milk is eliminated from the infant's diet through the introduction of solid foods in exchange for milk. Until they are toilet-trained, infants in industrialized countries wear diapers. The transition from diapers to training pants is an important transition in the development of an infant/baby to that of a toddler.
Children need more sleep than adults—up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as the child ages. Until babies learn to walk, they are carried in the arms, held in slings or baby carriers, or transported in baby carriages or strollers. Most industrialized countries have laws requiring child safety seats for babies in motor vehicles.
Response to sounds
Infants respond to the sound of snake
hissing, angry voices of adults, the crackling sound of a fire, thunder, and
the cries of other infants. They have a drop in heart rate, their eyes
blinking, increased turning toward the speakers or parent, all of these
indicating that they were paying more attention. This is believed to be an
evolutionary response to danger. Babies' ability to accurately locate sounds is
refined during their first year.
Benefits of touch
Benefits of touch
Studies have shown that infants
who have been the recipients of positive touch experience more benefits as they
develop emotionally and socially. Experiments have been done with infants up to
four months of age using both positive touch (stroking or cuddling) and
negative touch (poking, pinching or tickling).
The infants who received the positive touch cried less often and also vocalized and smiled more than the infants who were touched negatively. Infants who were the recipients of negative touching have been linked with emotional and behavioral problems later in life. A lower amount of physical violence in adults has been discovered in cultures with greater levels of positive physical touching.
The infants who received the positive touch cried less often and also vocalized and smiled more than the infants who were touched negatively. Infants who were the recipients of negative touching have been linked with emotional and behavioral problems later in life. A lower amount of physical violence in adults has been discovered in cultures with greater levels of positive physical touching.
Mortality
Infant mortality is the death of an infant in
the first year of life, often expressed as the number of deaths per 1000 live
births (infant mortality rate). Major causes of infant mortality include dehydration, infection, congenital malformation and SIDS.
This epidemiological indicator is recognized as a
very important measure of the level of health care in a country because it is
directly linked with the health status of infants, children,
and pregnant women as well as access to medical care, socioeconomic conditions,
and public health practices.
There is a positive relationship between
national wealth and good health. The rich and industrialized countries of the
world, prominently Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Japan,
spend a large proportion of their wealthy budget on the health care system. As,
a result, their health care systems are very sophisticated, with many physicians,
nurses, and other health care experts servicing the population.
Thus, infant mortality is low. On the other hand, a country such as Mexico, which spends disproportionately less of its budget on healthcare, suffers from high mortality rates. This is because the general population is likely to be less healthy.
In the U.S., infant mortality rates are especially high in minority groups. For instance, non-Hispanic black women have an infant mortality rate of 13.63 per 1000 live births whereas in non-Hispanic white women it was much lower at a rate of 5.76 per 1000 live births. The average infant mortality rate in the U.S. is 6.8 per 1000 live births.
Thus, infant mortality is low. On the other hand, a country such as Mexico, which spends disproportionately less of its budget on healthcare, suffers from high mortality rates. This is because the general population is likely to be less healthy.
In the U.S., infant mortality rates are especially high in minority groups. For instance, non-Hispanic black women have an infant mortality rate of 13.63 per 1000 live births whereas in non-Hispanic white women it was much lower at a rate of 5.76 per 1000 live births. The average infant mortality rate in the U.S. is 6.8 per 1000 live births.
Emotional development
Attachment theory is primarily an evolutionary and ethological theory whereby the infant or
child seeks proximity to a specified attachment figure in situations of alarm
or distress for the purpose of survival.
The forming of attachments is considered to be the foundation of the infant/child's capacity to form and conduct relationships throughout life. Attachment is not the same as love or affection although they often go together. Attachment and attachment behaviors tend to develop between the age of 6 months and 3 years.
Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some time. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment, which in turn lead to 'internal working models' which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts, and expectations in later relationships.
There are a number of attachment 'styles' namely 'secure', 'anxious-ambivalent', 'anxious-avoidant', (all 'organized') and 'disorganized', some of which are more problematic than others. A lack of attachment or a seriously disrupted capacity for attachment could potentially amount to serious disorders.
The forming of attachments is considered to be the foundation of the infant/child's capacity to form and conduct relationships throughout life. Attachment is not the same as love or affection although they often go together. Attachment and attachment behaviors tend to develop between the age of 6 months and 3 years.
Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with the infant, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some time. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment, which in turn lead to 'internal working models' which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts, and expectations in later relationships.
There are a number of attachment 'styles' namely 'secure', 'anxious-ambivalent', 'anxious-avoidant', (all 'organized') and 'disorganized', some of which are more problematic than others. A lack of attachment or a seriously disrupted capacity for attachment could potentially amount to serious disorders.
Infants develop distinct relationships to
their mothers, fathers, siblings, and non-familial caregivers.Beside the dyadic attachment
relationships also a good quality of the triadic relationships (mother – father
– infant) is important for infant mental health development.
Babyhood
Babyhood is a critical period in personality development when the foundations of adult personality are laid. In contrast toddler is used to denote a baby
that has achieved relative independence, in moving about, and feeding.
Plane travel
Many airlines refuse boarding for all
babies aged under 7 days (for domestic flights) or 14 days for international
flights. Asiana
Airlines allows babies to board international flights at 7 days
of age. Garuda Indonesia disallows all babies under the age of 14 days to
board any flights.
Delta Air Lines allows infants to travel
when they are less than 7 days old when they present a physician travel
approval letter. Sky west will not allow an infant less than 8 days old on
board.
